that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high ego boundaries.
(4) The discourse theory (话语交际说)
The discourse theory was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. it was developed from Halliday‘s theory of first language acquisition. The theory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourses. The theory includes five hypotheses.
(5) The monitor theory (自我监测说)
The monitor theory was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:
① The acquisition-learning hypothesis (习得与学习假说)
The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.
② The monitor hypothesis (自我监测假说)
Different functions — According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages.
Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the target language.
③ The natural order hypothesis (自然次序假说)
Same order — This hypothesis claims the that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language.
Speed — In Krashen‘s point view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.
④ The input hypothesis (输入假说)
Language input and language acquisition — According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input.
⑤ The affective filter hypothesis (感情屏障假说)
Purpose — The affective filter hypothesis attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success — motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.
(6) The cognitive theory (认知说)
① Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a cognitive process because they think it involves internal
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presentations which offer regulation and guidance for performance.
② Notions — In the cognitive theory, automat city and restructuring are the most important notions because
learners have to select appropriate vocabulary, grammatical rules and conventions governing language use.
③ Modes — Cognitive psychologists think the process of language communication is a kind of information
processing. When processing information, people use two ways which are called automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and practice will help the learner to acquire the automatic processing capacity.
④ Different stages — The cognitive theory holds that language learning at the beginning stage involves
more of the process of automat city while at the advanced stage it involves more of the process of restructuring.
4.A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching (外语教学简史) 1) The Reform Movement (1882 – 1906) (外语教学改革运动)
Grammar-Translation Method — It was the first method used at the end of the 18th century. The principal aim was to help learners to acquire a reading knowledge of the target language. This method did not pay attention to the importance of speech.
The primacy of speech — In 1882, Victor published a pamphlet entitled Language Teaching Must Start A fresh which started the reform movement. The principles of the movement were the primacy of speech and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom.
2) Modern language teaching and research (1906 – 1940) (现代语言教学与研究)
During this period, the teaching of English as a second/foreign language because a profession. There appeared a number of world-famous scholars and books. Harold Palmer (帕尔默) tried out the Oral Method in his teaching.
3) Structural language teaching (1940 –1970) (结构主义语言教学)
In this period, structural language teaching was used as the main method and its theoretical basis was American structuralism and behaviourism. During the Second World War, American structuralist created a new method, called Audio lingual Method, in the 1950s, a new method called, Transformational Generative Linguistics was born. It criticized the Audi lingual Method.
Foreign language teaching as a science — During the period from 1940 to 1970, foreign language teaching became a science and applied linguistics was admitted into universities as a subject. A number of centers for applied linguistics were founded. A lot of academic works on applied linguistics were published.
4) Communicative language teaching (1970 - ) (交际语言教学)
At the end of the 1950s, Chomsky‘s transformational generative linguistics started a revolution. And then at the end of the 1960s, cognitive psychology came into being. They caused the appearance of a new teaching method.
5) Communicative language teaching (交际语言教学)
This is probably the main trend dominating the language teaching profession today. 6) New theories of second language acquisition (新的第二语言习得理论)
Influenced by Chomsky‘s hypothesis of language acquisition device (LAD) and the cognitive psychology, many new theories of second language acquisition were introduced in the 1970s.
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7) New methods of language teaching (新的语言教学法)
Communicative language teaching is the main trend in this period. But there are some other new methods which are also tried.
8) New approaches to language syllabus (语言教学大纲的新思路)
While some applied linguists were trying to find the best way to teach languages, some other applied linguists began to design the notional syllabus.
9) Exploration of the human relations (探索人际关系)
People have realized that relations between teachers and students, and relations among the students themselves are very important in language teaching. They try to find the best relations among them.
II. Points for Discussion (思考题及参考答案)
1. What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece?
One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The other controversy was between the analogists and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The animalists maintained there were no rules. Their debate roused people‘s interest in language and led them to the detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar.
2. What are the main features of traditional linguistics?
Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form of language was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly.
3. What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism?
Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American Indians‘ languages and found that the traditional grammatical mode could not be used to analyze the structure of those languages. He had to describe those languages as they were used. This started American structuralism.
Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language. It soon became the bible of American structuralism. 4. What is the influence of behaviourism over American structuralism?
In 1913, the American psychologist John? Watson published an article entitled Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It. This was the formal introduction behaviourism. Watson believed we had no direct way to observe the animal‘s mind. We could only observe the animal‘s behaviour and the external environmental conditions. Behaviourists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The other kind is called operant conditioning. Behaviourism helped the development of structuralism.
5. What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first language acquisition process?
Chomsky assumes that children are born with a Language acquisition device (LAD语言习得机制). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles called universal grammar. One the child is born; the particular
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language environment will trigger the LAD. Children‘s language acquisition process completes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particular language. 6. What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance?
Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. 7. How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods?
Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performances as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker and try to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.
8. What is the main feature of functional linguistics?
Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and developed by Firth, believes ―the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context.‖ It introduced the phrase ―context of situation‖. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. It‘s point of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form, and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions.
9. What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology?
Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people‘s perceptional experience. It claimed that that people perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means ―organized shape‖ or ―whole form‖ in English. 10. What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis?
The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is only a very small part of the whole mind while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behaviour of patients. 11. What are the principles of behaviourism?
The principles of behaviourism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead of considering animal‘s mental events because these things could not be seen. Behaviourism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses.
12. What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several times with a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequence of the response.
13. What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology?
The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget‘s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the American linguist Chomsky.
14. How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge?
The term cognitive means knowledge and ―cognitive‖ psychology can be defined as the study of people‘s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of
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knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relations with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes — assimilation. 15. How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process?
Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviourists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit. 16. How does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages in the world. It divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the core grammar of the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner‘s mother tongue will help the learner to learn the target language.
17. How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition?
Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge and behaviour in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. 18. How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process?
The discourse theory argues that there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language.
19. What are the five hypotheses of the monitor theory?
They are the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.
20. How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process?
The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process — automatcity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves nor of the process of restructuring. 21. What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement?
The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the Reform Movement. A lot of books were published. An applied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape.
22. What is the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of foreign language teaching?
Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of
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