语言学8

Chapter 8 Language in Use

Teaching objectives:

Enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and pragmatic theories. Teaching Focus:

The difference between pragmatics and semantics 1.Speech act theory

2.The cooperative principle and its four maxims Teaching Methods and Strategies:

Ss?s practice and T?s comments; PBL; seminar Teaching Procedures 1. Speech Act Theory

2. The Theory of Conversatinal Implicature 3. Post-Gricean Development

? （T）The cooperative principle, an important pragmatic principle proposed by Grice, aims

to explain how we mean more than we say.

? （T）A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.

? （T）According to Searle?s classification of speech acts, request, order, suggest and

advise all belong to the same one general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do sth.

Multiple choice

1.An illocutionary act is identical with __

? A.sentence meaning b.the speaker,s intention ? C.lg understanding d.the speaker,s competence 2.the indirect speech act was developed by

? A.John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle Definition

? Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and

specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters. ? In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced the word

“Pragmatics” into literature.

? 莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号

三分说： ? 句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics

是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。

符号三分说

Syntactics: the formal relation of signs to one another.

Semantics: the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable. Pragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters.

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Semantics & Pragmatics

? ? ? ? ? ?

Both are concerned with study of meaning.

没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究 语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义 语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究 语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究

语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realization

Chomsky

Semantics & Pragmatics

? Peter bought a car.

? It was Peter who bought a car. ? It was a car that Peter bought. ? What peter bought was a car.

? 句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果 ? 语义学：这些句子都是同义的。 ? 语用学：这些句子都是不同的。

恭喜你

? 语音学家:分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。

? 句法学家:指出这是一个无主语的祈使句，有一个动词加一个代词组成。 ? 语义学家:这句话的意思：向某个人表示祝贺。

? 语用学家:将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下

向“你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？ ? Pragmatics may also be defined as the study of language in actual use.

? Meaning in pragmatics is different from the meaning we studied in semantics mostly

in the sense that pragmatic meaning depends more on context.

Sentence Meaning It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition.

Utterance Meaning It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.

（C）____ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.

A. Syntax B . Semantics C. Pragmatics D. Sociolinguistics

58. ____ is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication. A. sociolinguistics B. semantics

C. pragmatics D. synchronic linguistics

? Answer: B

82. Once the notion of ____ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics. A. meaning B. context C. form D. content ? Answer: B Speech act theory

? The first major theory in the study of language in use.

? Originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin. ? How to Do Things with Words (1962)《怎样用词做事》

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? Performantive & Constative ? The theory of Illocutionary Act Performative & Constative

? If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action, the sentences are called

performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize.

言有所为包括完成一个动作如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌或实施某一行为如许诺、警告、道歉、欢迎等。

In contrast, constatives are descriptions of what the speaker is doing at the moment of speaking.

同济大学Illustrate the difference between constative and performative utterance. (2) Searl对言外行为的分类 1）阐述类（representatives），swear, state, assert, claim, guess, hypothesize.

2）指令类 (directives)，beg, request, advise, invite, suggest, insist, order, demand. 3）承诺类(commissives)，promise, undertake, vow.

4）表达类(expressives)，apologize, congratulate, thank, sympathize, condole. 5）宣告类 (declarations), name, declare, appoint. 东南大学2002

? What are the five general types of illocutionary speech acts John Searle has specified?

Give examples to each of them.

Felicity conditions 合适条件

? There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate or felicitous. Austin

suggested the following conditions:

? ? ? ? ? ? ?

A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure,

(ii) The relevant participants and circumstance must be appropriate. B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.

C. (i) The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified. Example:

the case of a ship-launching ceremony; the case of bequeathing one?s watch; the case of betting

? Features of typical performatives:

? Use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and

performative verbs

53. The sentence “ I apologize!” belongs to the category of _____ according to the speech act theory.

A. expressive B. performative C. representative D. constative

? Answer: B

19. The _ D ___ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.

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A. performative B.phatic C.recreational D.emotive

81. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn?t it?” is _____

A. informative B. phatic C. performative D. recreational Answer: B

Functions of Language

– informative （信息功能）

– interpersonal function （人际功能）

– Performative (施为功能，该概念来自于Austin & Searle 的言语行为理论

speech act theory)。

– Emotive function（感情功能）

– Phatic communion （交互性功能：如礼节性的交谈ritual exchanges, 俚语

slangs, jokes, 行话jargons等。通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况，如英国人谈论天气。该术语来源于人类语言学家Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。） – Recreational function （娱乐性功能，a baby?s babbling or a chanter?s chanting） – Metalingual function （元语言功能，用语言来谈论语言)

a theory of the Illocutionary act

? An Locutionary Act means that when we speak, we move our vocal organs and produce a

number of sounds with a certain meaning. ? An Illocutionary Act is using a sentence to perform a function.

? A Perlocutionary Act is the result or effects that are produced by meanings of saying

something.

100. John Austin proposed ____ in the late 1950s.

A. Speech Act Theory B. 7 types of meaning C. Cooperative Principle D. Predication analysis

? Answer: A

149.The first major theory in the study of language in use in called ____. A. illocutionary theory B. Speech Act Theory C. conversational implicature D. the Q and R-principle

? Answer: B

60. ____refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. A. Locutionary act B. illocutionary act C. perlocutionary act D. speech act Answer: A

the theory of conversational implicature ? the Cooperative Principle ? characteristics of implicature Conversational implicature

? Proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herebrt Paul Grice. ? Logic and Conversation 《逻辑与形式》

? 在我们所说的话和我们说话的用意之间常有一定的距离，这种话语的用意就是“会

话含义”（Conversational implicature） ? A: Can you tell me the time?

? B: Well, the mail has already come.

? A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?

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? B: I’ve heard Mary is going. the Cooperative Principle

? Quantity Maxim ? Quality Maxim ? Relation Maxim ? Manner Maxim Quantity Maxim

? make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of

the exchange).

? Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. A: Where does X live?

B: Somewhere in the suburbs of the city. Dear Sir,

Mr. X’s command of English is excellent and his attendance at tutorials has been regular, yours, etc.

Quality Maxim:

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Try to make your conversation one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false.

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Life is a journey.

Life is a box of chocolate. He is a fox.

He has a heart of stone. Relation Maxim Be relevant ? ? ? ?

? A:Can you answer the telephone? ? B:I’m in the bath.

? A:The hostess is an awful bore, don’t think? B:The roses are lovely, aren’t they?

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Manner Maxim Be perspicuous

avoid obscurity of expressions. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. Be orderly.

A: Let’s get the kids something.

B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

Miss X produced a series of sounds that correspond closely with the score of “Home, Sweet Home.”

1. There are ____ maxims under the cooperative principle. A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 Answer: C

2. The maxim of ____ requires that a participation’s contribution be relevant to the

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