formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (known as the People’s Charter) in 1838, which had six points: (1) the vote for all adult males, (2) voting by secret ballot, (3) equal electoral districts, (4) abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament, (5) payment of members of Parliament, and (6) annual Parliament, with a General Election every June. Support for these six demands was loudly voiced all over the country. Other working men formed Chartist groups throughout the country to press Parliament to accept the 6 points. But Parliament rejected them for three times. In the end, the Chartist Movement failed. It failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class was still immature. The Chartist Movement, however, the first nation wide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical.
11. How did the Labour Party come into being? —— As the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which they could possess if they acted together instead of separately. So various working class organizations were formed which brought about the formation of the Labour Party. The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party, which was formed in January, 1893 and Led by Keir Hardie, a Scottish miner. The foundation of an effective party for labour depended on the trade unions. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to be Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party remains one of the two major parties in Britain until today.
12. What is a constitutional monarchy? When did it begin in Britain? —— A constitutional monarchy is a governmental system in which the head of State is a king or a queen who reigns but does not rule. The country is namely reigned by the Sovereign, but virtually by His or Her Majesty’s Government —— a body of Ministers who are the leading members of whichever political party the electorate has voted into office, and who are responsible to Parliament. The Constitutional Monarchy in Britain began in 1689, when king William and Queen Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons and constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with power limited by Parliament began.
13. What is the role of the Monarchy in the British government? —— The sovereign is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, he/she is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the crown and the “supreme governor” of the established church of England.
14. What are the main functions of Parliament? —— The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide the means of carrying on the work of government by voting for taxation; (3) to examine government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure; (4) to debate the major issues of the day.
15. Why do the criminal convicts like to be tried first before the magistrates’ courts? —— A Magistrates’ court tries summary offences and “either way” offences. It is open to the public and the media and usually consists of three unpaid “lay” magistrates. A magistrates’ court sits without a jury. The criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt; every possible step is taken to deny to the prosecution any advantage over the
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defence. No accused person has to answer the questions of the police before trials; he is not compelled to give evidence or to submit to cross-examination in court.
16. What does the civil courts system do? —— The civil courts system does the following jurisdiction: (1) actions founded upon contract and tort; (2) trust and mortgages cases; (3) actions for the recovery of land; (4) cases involving disputes between landlords and tenants; (5) admiralty cases and patent cases; and (7) divorce cases and other family matters.
17. What is meant by the term “welfare state” in Britain? —— The welfare state is a system of government by which the state provides the economic and social security of its citizens through its organization of health services, pensions and other facilities. The system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.
18. What is the most important established Church in Britain? How is it related to the Crown and linked with the State? —— The most important established Church in Britain is the Church of England. It is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that church and, as “Defender of the Faith”, must promise on his or her accession to uphold it. Church of England archbishops, bishops and deans of cathedrals are appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of Lords, in which the two archbishops (of Canterbury and York), the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops have seats 19. What distinguishes the Open University from all other British Universities? —— The Open University is non-residential university which is “open” to all to become students. It offers degree and other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and other member countries of the EU. It was founded in 1969 and began its first courses in 1970. It was a combination of specially produced printed texts, correspondence tuition, television and radio broadcasts and audio/video cassettes. For some courses, there are residential schools. There is a network of study centers for contact with part-time tutors and counselors, and with fellow students.
20.Say something about the three immigration waves. —— The first immigration wave began in the mid 1810s, grew steadily during the 1830s and 40s and reached the highest point in 1845. The second wave covered the period between 1860 and 1890. The third wave was the largest of the three. It happeded between 1890 and 1914.
21. Why did the early settlers come to America? Who were the Pilgrims? Who were the Puritans? What were the features in the colonial period which had influence on later American development? —— The early settlers came to America either for the opportunity to realize their dreams and better their lives or for the freedom from religious and governmental persecution. The Pilgrims were persons who suffered religious persecution in England and went to Holland and later moved to America in 1620. The Puritans were the members of a Protestant group in England who wanted to purify the Church of England. Dissatisfied and threatened in England, they saw America as a refuge and migrated to America since 1630. There were a number of features in the colonial period which had influence on later American development. They were: representative form of government, rule of law, respect of individual rights, religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.
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22. What were the causes of the War of Independence? —— The economy in the thirteen colonies developed very fast and people wanted more power to detemine their own business. But the policy of the British government was to bring the development under control and to collect more taxes from the colonies. On April 19, 1775, on their way to Concord to seize the military supplies of the militia there, the British soldiers met armed militiamen. The shots were fired, the War of Independence began.
23. What was unusual about the Article of Confederation? What was the struggle at the Constitutional Convention? How was the conflict solved? —— The Article of Confederation was unusual in many ways. First, it provided for no king. The drafters blamed the troubles with Britain on king George III. So they decided not to have a king but to have a republic. This was revolutionary. Second, while the Articles created a central government in the form of a Congress, the emphasis was still on state powers. Third, the Articles of Confederation was a written constitution for the United States. No important country in the world at that time, including Britain, had a written constitution. At the Constitution Convertion the delegates all agreed it was impossible to try to patch up the Articles of Confederation, and decided to ignore them and draw up a new plan of government. Here contradictions emerged between the bigger states and smaller states, between the industrial commercial interests and landed interests, etc. In the end, the conflict was resolved by the “Great Compromise” of July 16, giving each state and equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population.
24. Why did the Civil War break out? How did the war end? —— In the early 1800s, the Northern states turned from farming to manufacturing. Black slavery soon disappeared in the North. But things were different in the South. The South expanded both its agriculture and its slavery. The problem of slavery became a serous political issue. The abolitionists tried to abolish slavery while the South tried to keep it. When Abraham Lincoln was elected President, the Southern states broke away and formed a new nation. Then Lincoln was determined to maintain the Union and the war broke out on April 12, 1861, Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against slavery. So he issued Emancipation Proclamation. Thus England and France stood by the Union’s side. Many black slaves joined the Union Army. After a series of battles, Robert Lee could no longer hold Richmond. He surrendered on April 9, 1865. The Civil War ended.
25. What were the contents of the New Deal? —— The New Deal included the following contents; (1) establishment and strengthening of government regulation and control of banking, credit and currency systems, overcoming the financial crisis and restriction of certain extreme practices of financial capital; (2) federal government management of relief and establishment of social security system such as the formation of the Civilian Conservation Crops and the setting-up of the Tennessee Valley Authority; (3) stimulation of the recover of industry and agriculture; (4) formulation and implementation of federal labour laws to raise the role of labour in the relations of production; (5) improvement of the situation of minorities and members of certain religious groups.
26. What was the impact of the Vietnam War-on American society? —— The Vietnam War had a great impact on American society. (1) The United States was weakened as a result of the long war. (2) American society had never been so divided since the Civil War. (3) There was serious disagreement with in the ruling circle. (4) The image of the United States, especially the image of the American armed forces, was discredited.
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27. Who was McCarthy and what was McCarthyism? —— Joseph R. McCarthy was U.S. Senator. He started his campaign by saying on Feb. 9, 1950 that he had the names of over 200 Communists in the State Department. His campaign of accusation and anti-Communist hysteria was called McCarthyism.
28. What is counterculture? What are some of the forms of counterculture? —— Counterculture is a movement of revolt against the moral values, the aesthetic standards, the personal behavior and the social relations of conventional society. Revolutionaries became models for some people. Many young people experimented with drugs. Music, especially rock music, became the chief vehicle for the counterculture attack on the status quo.
29. What are the functions of the Congress? —— The Congress has many functions, but the most central is the passage of law. One of the most important non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate. A second important power is to compel testimony from unwilling witness and to cite for contempt of Congress witness who refuse to testify, and for perjury those who give false testimony.
30. What are some of the characteristics of American education? ——(1) Formal education in the United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education. (2) Public educations is free and compulsory. (3) Diversity is considered to be an outstanding characteristic of American education. (4)Education is a function of the states, not the federal government. V. Write about 150 on the following topic.
1. Why and how did the English Parliament come into being? —— After king John died in 1216, his son became Henry III. He filled the most important offices with foreigners, undertook an expensive war which ended in the loss of a large land and demanded more money to enable his son to be king of Sicily. So the barons rebelled. Under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, they defeated the king in 1264. In 1265, Simon de Montrort summoned the Great Council to meet at Westminster, together with two knights from each country and two citizens from each town. This meeting has been considered as the earliest parliament. The Great Council developed later into the Lords and the Commons known as a parliament. Both Houses were called to agree to taxation. The Commons could present petitions to the king which were the first parliamentary bills. But Parliament only met by royal invitation. Its role was to offer advice, not to make decisions. The most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
2. How did the Civil Wars break out? What were the consequences of the Civil Wars? —— Charles I, also believed “the Divine Right of kings”. His prerogative rights should not be challenged by anyone. It encouraged confrontation with Parliament, whose members had become increasingly Puritan in sympathy. He managed to rule England for 11 years without Parliament. But in 1640, Charles needed money and feared the invasion of the Scots and had to call the Long Parliament. Then a whole series of measures were introduced by the Parliament limiting the authority of the Crown while increasing its own. Thus, by 1642, the king and the commons were at each other’s throats, war was inevitable. In 1642, the first Civil War broke out. By autumn 1646, Parliament held most of England and next year Charles was captured but escaped. He made a deal with the Scots who invaded England but were defeated by Cromwell. Thus was the beginning of the Second Civil War. In November 1648, the king was captured again and condemned to death. The English Civil
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Wars have been seen a conflict between Parliament and the king, but also as a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown. The English Civil Wars not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history. 3. Tell briefly the history of the two-party system in the United States. What are the characteristics of the two major parties in the United States today? —— Political parties are the basis of the American political system. In general, America has a two-party system. This means that two major political parties-now the Democrats and the Republicans-dominate politics at the federal, state and local levels. There have been four periods in the history of political parties in America. The first periods of the party system began with the first two major parties or camps —— the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton. Most of the Anti-Federalists later accepted the Constitution with the Bill of Rights, and began to call themselves Democratic-Republican. After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican Party split. The main faction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the faction opposed to Jackson formed the Whig Party in 1834. As the struggle over slavery intensified, the majority of the Whig Party, part of the democrats, and other anti-slavery elements founded in 1854 the Republican Party. The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time. The fourth period began with Franklin D. Roosevelt’s coming into power and lasted till the 1980s. In this period, for about 50 years, with short interruptions, the Democratic Party was dominant. The Two major parties are really not very different today. But this does not mean there is not difference between them. On economic issues, the Democrats traditionally favour government intervention while the Republicans stress the role of the market more. On social issues the Democrats support a strong social security system while the Republicans oppose large government social security programs. In spite of these differences, the two parties both believe in individualism, defend capitalism and uphold private ownership of means of production. In terms of organization the two parties are actually loose political coalitions.
4. What were the causes and consequences of the War of 1812? —— The causes leading to the war were the following: (1) A war between Britain and France was going on in Europe. First the American government adopted a policy of not allowing trading with both countries. Later the U.S. government changed its policy by stating that if any of the two countries gave up its blockade against American shipping, the U.S. world lift the prohibition. In 1811, the U.S., on the condition that France would drop its blockade against American shipping, lifted the ban. This angered the British. (2) The Americans resented the British practice of impressing or forcibly removing seamen from American ships on the grounds that they were British subjects. (3) The U.S. wanted to take advantage of the War in Europe, when Britain and France had no time to look after their interests in the New World, to expand into Canada or Spanish Florida. This harmed the interests of the British. —— The war had great impact on the development of the Unite States. Firstly, the war made people realize the importance of a strong national government. Secondly, the war strengthened the feeling of national unity and patriotism. Thirdly, for almost 10 years after the war, the Americans turned their attention to the devlopment of the western part of the continent. Fourthly, it made both Britain and the United States realize their disputes should be slove through negotiation. A shaky peace in 1814 turned into lasing peace between the two countries.
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