B.de adjectival.
Final—they are running in the final Daily—China Daily Comic—comic actor
Regular—regular customer
Young married—married person Annual—annual books or magazine Bimonthly—bimonthly magazine Weekly—weekly magazine Perennial—perennial plant.
3. Conversion to adjective
Denomial: a brick garage, a very oxford accent, a New York accent.
4. other categories of conversion
But,if-- his speech contains too many ifs and buts Must—the book is a must for students of science Isms—this is the age of isms The pros and cons Dos ad don‘ts
Off—she will off and do her own things Down—they downed tools in protest Up-in-the-air—I feel up in the ari Face to face interview
5. conversion related to certain changes of pronunciation, spelling and stress A. voicing of final consonants
Abuse—abuse, advice—advise, belief—believe, grief—grieve, half—halve, mouth—mouth
But the words licence/ license, practice/practise are pronounced within a final [s]. whereas in American English the conversion is complete, the two words have the same spelling. B. shift of stress
When verbs of two syllables are converted into nouns, the stress is sometimes shifted from the second to the first syllable.
Ac‘cent—?accent, com‘bine—?combine, abs‘tract—?abstract, con‘fine—?confine, con‘fict—?confict, con‘test—?contest, ex‘port—?export, in‘crease—?increase, per‘fume—?perfume, pro‘test—?protest, re‘cord—?record, trans‘port—?transport, etc. Chapter 5 words and motivation Challenge you ! bong boo-hoo boom bow-wow
What does it mean? Task 1 Brainstorming
What do you want to say about the relationship between the structure of a word and its meaning? Chapter 5 Words and motivation What is motivation?
Motivation is the relationship between the structure of a word and its meaning, or the relationship between words and expressions and the things they can be used to refer to.
it is known that the relation between word and thing is indirect, being mediated by the concept. Motivation can occur in the following ways:
5.1 phonetic motivation / onomatopoeia motivation.
A large number of English words can be explained by phonetic motivation. The formation or use of words that were coined in imitation of the sounds associated with the things named are called onomatopoeia,
The association between sounds is caused by the similarity of the sound and the meaning. At first some words from animals:
Apes gibber/jabber 猿啼 asses bray 驴嘶 bears growl 熊咆哮 Bulls bellow /low 公牛吼叫 pigs grunt 猪哼哼 horse heigh/snort/nicker 马鸣/萧萧
Lions roar/ growl 狮吼 tigers growl/ rar/snarl 虎啸 wolves howl/ growl 狼嗥 Dogs bark/bay/yelp 犬吠 elephants trumpet/ bellow 象鸣叫 cows low/moo 母牛哞哞叫
Sheep bleat/ blat/ baa 羊咩咩叫 ducks quack/ squawk 鸭子嘎嘎叫 Cats meow/mew 猫喵喵叫 cocks crow/ cock-a-doodle-doo 雄鸡喔喔啼 Hens cackle/ cluck/ chuckle 母鸡咯咯叫 Chickens cheep 小鸡叽叽叫 Geese gaggle/goggle/ crackle 鹅嘎嘎叫 frogs croak 青蛙呱呱叫 Mice squeak/peep 老鼠吱吱叫 Bees hum/buzz/drone 蜜蜂嗡嗡叫 Cicadas chirp 蝉知了知了叫 sparrows twitter 麻雀叫喳喳 Crows caw 乌鸦叫呱呱 cuckoos cuckoo 杜鹃声声啼
Doves sob/coo 鸽子咕咕叫 woodpeckers drum 啄木鸟咚咚 Owls whoop/scream 猫头鹰嗬嗬叫 larks warble 云雀啭鸣 Cranes cry/ whoop 白鹭啼鸣 birds peep/sing/chirp 料 Magpies chatter/clatter 喜鹊喳喳 swallows chirp/twitter 燕子呢喃
Beetles drone 甲虫叽叽 crickets chip/ chirr/chirrup 蟋蟀唧唧 Snakes hiss 蛇嘶嘶
Secondly some words come into being by imitating the sounds in the nature
Bang 砰 patter 啪嗒 （雨） tingling 丁零（铃声） ping pong 乒乓 tick tock 嘀嗒
rumble 雷声隆隆 rustle /murmur/ rattle/whisper 风飒飒/ 沙沙/ 咯咯/ 习习 crack 噼啪 clink 叮当 zip 嗖嗖（子弹）
Thirdly, some words are used for imitation of voice of humankind
Haha 哈哈 aha 啊哈 gurgle 咯咯 boo 呸 ouch 哎哟 snore 呼噜声 chortle 哈哈大笑声 titter 嗤嗤的笑声
It should be mentioned that onomatopoeia is often adopted by writers as a kind of rhetorical device in order that a vivid and real situation can be presented before the readers. For instance:
Its creaks blending with the squeaking and rumbling of the grinding wheels and the occasional grunts and sighs of the camels.
From the Middle Eastern Bazaar The ice was here, the ice was there The ice was all around:
It cracked and growled and roared and howled, Like noise in a swound ! ( swoon)
From Samuel T Coleridge: The rime of the Ancient Mariner
The onomatopoeia helps to create a scene of echoing sounds at the south pole.
You would see the islands looking dusty through the rain, and the trees thrashing around in the wind; then comes a h-whack-bum! Bum! Bumble-umble-umbum-bum-bum-bum—and the thunder would go rumbling and grumbling away, and quit – and then rip comes another flash and another sockdolager ( thunder ).
From Mark Twain: The adventures of Huckleberry Finn
In this part, he gives us a vivid scene of rain, wind, flash, thunder. It is worth mentioning that the onomatopoeia helps the plot to reach the climax. The rumbling and grumbling impinges on the readers‘ ears continually, due to which the readers may feel as if they were on the spot of the thunderstorm. 5.2 Grammatical motivation
Words which were formed by means of grammatical structure belong to the category of motivation by grammar.
A word like door man, it consists of door and man. This word was formed by grammatical motivation. The word teacher is a similar example. The word can be understood by anyone who knows English verb teach and the suffix –er.
Therefore, a large number of words in the English vocabulary are formed by grammatical motivation which has been discussed the fourth chapter. Seek for_________
1.地震恶魔夺走了多少年轻的生命；悲伤的寒流正席卷着每个角落。 2. 我的怒火在燃烧。
3. 愿他们在天国的人生旅途平安幸福。 4. 猪头，笨蛋、牛市，熊市
5. sunshine, a wave/fit of anger, a series of laughter, a thrill of fear, Smoking heavily Metaphor We live by
Metaphor is a way of cognition and behavior in terms of words and language. Without metaphor,…. 21,000,000
5.3 semantic motivation
Semantic motivation is also called motivation of meaning. From the primary sense the word has developed figurative senses in the course of development of the language. There are a variety of words formed by figurative senses as follows: 1) metaphor
a transfer of a meaning, a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. it is common that metaphor is classified into three categories：
First, the reference is stated directly, that is to say, the subject is the reference. A book that is shut is but a brick. Life is a short of summer All the world is a stage.
Second, the reference is half covert. The reference is the words conversed from verbs, by which the subject is described to embroil the features of the reference. They stormed the speaker with questions He just parrots what other people say.
From every window heads were craning for a view of it. Third, the reference is utterly covert.
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested. The last striking feature worth mentioning is the culture factor in metaphor.
The culture factor plays a great role in English metaphor, due to which it is of great difficulty for those who are from different cultures to understand the metaphor entailed in a large number of idioms
and phrases:
Teach a fish to swim 班门弄斧 Feather one‘ nest 中饱私囊
Beard the lion in his den 虎口拔牙 Add insult to injury 雪上加霜
Cast pearls before swine 对牛弹琴 Hold the candle to the devil 助纣为虐
Cry up wine and sell vinegar 挂羊头卖狗肉 Fish in the air 水中捞月
Set a fox to keep one‘s geese 引狼入室 Let sleeping dogs lie 不要打草惊蛇 Let the cat out of the bag 露马脚 Hold a wolf by the ears 骑虎难下 A flash in the pan 昙花一现 2）Metonymy 转喻
Metonymy is originated from Greek. The Cassell Dictionary of Literary and Language Terms defines it as : the name of something is used to represent a more general but closely related thing. In other words, metonymy is just a change of name.
It is frequently cited that Metonymy may be classified as follows: Firstly, a container for its content The kettle is boiling
Sorry, my pocket can‘t afford such a pair of shoes. After her husband left her, Wendy took to the bottle.
Secondly, a place for the people, a location for the institution or organization The whole town attended the funeral
The minute Presley took the stage, the museum hall burst into cheers. Downing Street—the British cabinet, the British government Fleet Street—the British Press
The white house—the US government Kremlin—the government of Russia
The Pentagon—the US military department Hollywood—the US film making industry
The wall street definitely has more say in their policy making. Thirdly, an instrument for its user. The pen is mightier than the sword.
He believed that the gun was not so much as the plough. And next, a striking feature for the person or the thing. A bald slipped out through the back door The crown should not yield to the cross
Bob was promoted form the grey-collar to the white-collar in the shortest time Fifthly, an organ for its function
Johnny Carson has much to do keep up with my quick and witty tongue. If there is any bad blood in the fellow, he will be sure to show it Sixthly, author for work.
To read a Shakespeare or a Mark Twain is to eat a food full of protein. Recently he has been steeped in O.Henry. 3) synecdoche:提喻 a part for the whole
More hands are needed at harvest time.
During my stay in Rwanda, when I came across the hungry mouths, big or small, I felt quite sympathetic and helpless as well. Walls have ears
the whole for the part.
China beat South Korea 3 to 1 at badminton, Kuala, Lumpur.
The last one worth mentioning here is special names for some allusions, historical events, myths and so on.
Romeo—a devoted lover Solomen—a wise man
Helen—a beautiful woman Judas—a traitor Shylock—a miser
Uncle Tom—a black who compromises and conforms with the whites. LeiFeng—one who is ready to help others 4) Analogy类比
Analogy is also from Greek. It is also a form of comparison but unlike simile or metaphor, which usually concentrates on one points of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance.
It is not surprising that many analogies have been made between social insects and human societies.
The striking feature of analogy is that a new word is made by imitating the original similar words, which is further classified as follows: Firstly, analogy of color
Gray list—white list , the Black panther—the green panther, blue-collar—the gray-colored workers. Secondly, analogy of numbers.the first lady—the first mother, the first family, the third world—the fourth world.
Thirdly, spatial analogy.
landscape—moonscape, marscape seafaring—space-faring, earthquake—star-quake. Moonport—moonport
Fourthly, analogy of similarity Missile gap—generation gap
Environmental pollution—noise/sound pollution/cultural pollution Fifthly, analogy of antonym反义词
Moonlight—daylight Hotline—cold-line With-it—without it
Flash back– flash forward Task 1 Brainstorming
A great many words have new meanings when they are used in metaphor: Fruitful: Blooming : Leg:
When they are followed by … they have metaphoric meanings. 5.4 Logical motivation
实质定义通常采用“属加种差定义法”来揭示事物的特有属性，因此，实质定义又叫属加种差定义。
大学英语词汇学复习要点
1.外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.
2.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)
多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.
3.Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.
4.Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created.
5.Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.
6.同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.
7.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别 Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several
distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
8.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their
denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 9.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
10.如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application 11.What are the characteristics of antonyms?
12.1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms
are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
13.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are
subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes
14.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and
psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 15.词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less
16.definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.
17.语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those
situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.
18.语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure 19.英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability.
20.英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions.
21.英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of idioms.
22.英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用, repetition重复and
juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人, euphemism委婉)
23.英语习语的变异形式In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents .
24.Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion,
geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
25.Metonymy 和Synecdoche ,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.
26.词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language.
27.A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved.
28.A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language.
29. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary .
30.An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword.
31.An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word.
32.A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. 33.A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer. 七、分析综合49-50*9
1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因cause——可以如何理解？——如何改进？improve 2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属free morpheme, bound morpheme——解释 3、构词法进行分析：word formation: 例如：VIP=very important person 属于aronym 4、分析idiom:属于什么短语——作用
注：重点有 1、idioms相关知识； 2、一些名词解释，如术语等； 3、types of meaning； 二. 串讲内容
Introduction 部分：
34.Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支:Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. 35.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:
1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
36.研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？ Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization 第一章
37.What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
38.词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词 1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g.
Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mail
39.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?
1)There is ?no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. Cat
2)The relationship between them is conventional.
3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. 40.What is relationship between sound and form?
1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language. 2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English
3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. 41.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?
1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.
3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 要记住以上四句话中的关键词：
1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing
42.你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是?sound and form ‘不一致。
43.What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 44.Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)
45.What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin
By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words.
(Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability 46.According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you 47.What are the characteristics of basic word stock?
1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability 要把握住?All national character‘词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词
48.稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water …e.g. machine, video, telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not absolute.
49.根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference
50.Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content or functional
words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language
51.什么叫borrowed words?Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.
52什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).?Denizens‘的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F). 53什么叫Translation-loans ?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ? long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
54什么叫Semantic-loans ?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and ?music ‘, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.
第二章：The development of the English vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar .
55.(重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families ?
The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech,
Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.
56.?Indo-European’ 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.
The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German,
Dutch ,Flemish and English.With Vikings‘ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.
57.重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,modern period. 58.*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）
Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance 59.Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？
The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
60.Three main sources of new words :
1)The rapid development of modern science and technology
2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language
61.Modes of Vocabulary Development 1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic
-ful, the suffix, means the amount contained.
Handful—an amount which is as much as can be held in the hand Mouthful—as much as a mouth will hold
-hood, the suffix, means the state or time of being sth Boyhood—the state period of being a boy
Brotherhood—the quality or state of being brothers
Manhood—the condition or period of time of being a man
-ing, the suffix, means material of, activity Matting—rough material for mats
Carpeting—heavy woven usually woolen material for making carpets Farming—the practice or working on a farm Teaching—the practice of being a teacher
-ism, the suffix, means practice of, doctrine of
Idealism—the system of living according to one‘s ideals Optimism—the belief that good will win over evil Pessimism—the belief that everything will be worse
-ship, the suffix, means the state or quality of Membership—the state of being a member of ..
Scholarship—a sum of money or other prize given to a student by an official body
4.1.3 Compounding
Compound word, also compound复合词, is a word made up of two or more other words. Compounds in English fall into two types: (1) vernacular compounds like teapot and blackbird, formed on principles typical of the Germanic languages. (2) Classical compounds like agriculture and biography, based on the compounding patterns of Greek and Latin.
Compounding is a process by which a compound lexeme is derived from two or more simpler lexemes. For instance, blackbird is a compound noun whose form, blackbird, combines those of Black and Bird. Compounding is a lexical process: it derives lexemes from lexemes.
For English, compounding is perhaps the most powerful word building process. The most common compounds are two nouns combined to create a meaning which differs from that of each of it parts, as in fire engine or toothbrush. However, compounds can be quite lengthy. Ads proclaim a ― no-cost-to-you gift‖ or an ― absolute money back guarantee. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to word classes: noun compounds, adjective compounds, and verb compounds.
4.1.3.1 Noun compounds.
Classifying nouns compounds: subject-verb, verb-verb, appositional, associative, instrumental, locative, resemblance, composition/form/contents, adjective-noun, names, other.
1) subject-verb. In these compounds a nominal element is interpreted as the agent of the action denoted by the other, verbal element. In most examples, therefore, the nominal element is an animate, but in a few, like hovercraft, jump jet, popgun, revolving door, though the noun is not animate, it still seems most naturally analyzed as the subject of the verb.
a. subject + deverbal noun. This is a very productive kind. Sunrise ( the sun rises) catcall, daybreak, earthquake, headache, rainfall, heartbeat.
b. verb+ subject. This kind is only weakly productive. Crybaby ( the baby likes to cry) tugboat, playboy, watchdog, driftice c. verbal noun in ing+subject
This kind is very productive. Dancing-girl ( the girl dances). Wading bird, washing machine, cleaning woman, flying squad 2) type verb and object. There are five kinds in this type
a. object + deverbal noun. This is a moderately productive kind. Compounds of this kind have different expression in meaning. Some compounds denote an activity, some denote the result of an activity and other can be either.
Blood test ( someone tests blood).
Birth control, dress design, haircut, office management, self control, suicide attempt b. object+ deverbal noun in ing. This kind is a very productive kind.
Air-conditioning, book-binding, brainwashing, dressmaking, housekeeping, story telling. c. object+ agential nouns in er or or. This is a very productive kind.
Gamekeeper, cigar-smoker, matchmaker, stockholder, computer-designer d. verb+object. Draw bridge ( someone draws the bridge). Push button, call girl, knitwear, treadmill
e. verbal noun in ing+object. This is very productive.
Reading material, drinking water, spending money, chewing gum, eating apple 3) verb and adverbial. There are five kinds in this type. a. verbal noun in ing+adverbial
diving board, drinking cup, freezing point, living room, waiting room( relation of place) adding machine, sewing machine, walking stick, washing machine (relation of instrument) b. adverbial+verbal noun in ing
churchgoing, horse riding, sun bathing ( relation of place) fly-fishing, handwriting ( relation of instrument) c. adverbial+agential noun in er
factory worker, city dweller, backswimmer, theatergoer ( place) daydreamer ( time)
d. adverbial+deverbal noun. A moderately productive kind. Boat ride, table talk, moon walk, field work ( place) Daydream, night flight ( time) Gunfight ( instrument) e. verb+ adverbial
workbench, springboard , washroom, restroom ( place)
grindstone, swimsuit, cookbook, fry-pan, plaything (instrument)
4) subject and object. This type is also called verbless compounds There are five kinds in this type
a. noun1 +noun2 ( noun 1 powers or operates noun 2)
air brake, cable car, motorcycle, steam engine, hydrogen bomb b. noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun 2 produces noun 1) honey bee, oil well, power plant, tear gas
c. noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun 1 produces noun 1) cane-sugar, sawdust, foodpoisoning, whalebone d. noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun1 has noun 2 )
pianokeys, arrowhead, television screen, cartwheel
e. noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun 2 control or works in connection with noun 1) chairperson, fireman, postman, housewife
5) subject + complement. This type has five kinds a. noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun 2 is noun 1)
manservant, pine tree, oak tree, drummer boy b. adj + noun ( noun is adj )
blackboard, blueprint, grey matter, dark room, superhero c. noun 1+noun 2 ( noun 2 is like noun 1) butterfly, dragonfly, goldfish, frogman
d. noun 1+ noun 2 ( noun 2 is of or consists of noun 1) snow flake, chocolate bar, dustheap
e. noun 1+ noun 2 ( noun 2 is for noun 1) tearoom, birdcage, breakfast time, flowerbed
4.1.3.2 adjective compounds. The classes of adjective compounds set out below are as follows: 1) adjunct+ verb 2) subject+ verb 3) verb +object 4) appositional 5) instrumental 6) locative 7) comparative 8) derivational 9) nominal attributive
1) adjunct + verb
a. adverb + adjective: evergreen wide awake
b. adverb + verb ( ing): far-seeing, easy going, everlasting, far-reaching, long-suffering c. adverb+ verb: well-read, well-frozen, ill-judged, well-behaved
2) subject + verb/ complement a. noun + verb (ed).
Poverty-stricken, man-made, sun baked, self-taught b. noun +adjective
headstrong, heart-sick, top-heavy
3) verb +object.
a. noun +verb (ing ) : breathtaking, painstaking, time-consuming b. noun + verbal adjective: germ-resistant, self-destructive c. noun + verb (ed): heart-broken, tongue-tied
4) appositonal. Adjective compounds in which there is a coordinative relation between the elements are, like the comparable nominal compound type. It is easier to find some examples in literature. Shakespeare has such words : fortunate-unhappy, foolish-witty, devilish-holy. In which there is a contrast between the meanings of the two elements. 5) Instrumental
a. noun+ adjective: seasick, camera-shy, snow-blind, travel-weary b. noun +verb(ed): time-honored, jet-propelled, spoon-fed 6) locative
a. locative noun + adjective: night-blind, world famous
b. locative noun + verb (ed): country bred, heart-felt, heaven born, world-renowned
7) comparative. In these compounds the second element is specified by a comparison with some quality characteristics of what the first element denotes. The first element in all cases is nominal. a. intensifying: a 1 ) noun+adjective: crystal-clear, razor sharp, ice-cold, snow-white a 2) verb ing +adjective: freezing cold, shocking pind
b. particularizing: b1) noun+color adjective: bottle green, grass green, sky blue
b 2) noun + adjective of extent or measurement: shoulder high, skin-deep, life-long 8) prepostional
a. noun +adjective: praiseworthy, homesick, color-blind, self-sufficient b. noun + verb (ed): diamond-cut, capacity –filled, safety-tested
9) derivational. These consist of a compound noun stem-either noun-noun or adjective-noun- and the adjective suffix ED
Quick tempered, good-natured, pig-headed, warm-hearted, short-sighted, feather-brained 10) nominal attributive
a. verb +object noun: catch-penny, break-neck, telltale
b. other nominal attributives: free-lance, full-scale, white-collar
4.1.3.3 Verb compounds
Verb compounds are compounds mainly formed by back-formation. For example, the verb compound baby-sit is derived from the word babysitter by subtracting the suffix er. Compounds of this category may be divided into tow types:
1) object + verb : sight see, brainwash, housekeep, lip-read, caretake, proof read, tape record. 2) adverbial and verb : daydream, sleep walk, window shop Verb compounds may also be formed by zero derivation
All the examples which follow, where patterns or noun to verb zero derivation are described, contain compound verbs from homonymous compound nouns.
Shipwreck, honeymoon, honeycomb, machine gun, handcuff.
4.1.4 conversion
Conversion, functional shift, or zero derivation. The use of a word that is normally one part of speech or word class as another part of speech, without any change in form. It is often said that there is no noun in English that can not be verbed: bag a prize, position a picture with care.
Conversion is a process which allows us to create additional lexical items out of those that already exist. It is also a process in language change. We like a word so that we decide to use it in a new way. So a saw is use to saw. A bag is used to bag, a file is used to file, a snoop snoops, and a spy spies.
This process is not limited to one syllable words. Shovels are used to shovel snow. Bottles are used in Bottling and butter for buttering, An umpire umpires a game. A star stars in a film shown at a theater where an usher ushers. Nor is the process limited to the creation of verbs from nouns. For example, one hears complains that the students bookstore upped its prices again. 1. Conversion to verb. There are two types of conversion to verb.
A. Denominal, which has seven kinds
a. to put in noun: bottle ( to put into a bottle), corner ( to put into a difficult position), floor ( to put a floor in a building)
b. give N or provide with N: coat ( give a coat to ), mask ( give a mask to ) c. to deprive of N: core ( remove the core from ), skin ( to take skin off )
d. to do with N: knife ( cut with a knife ), brake ( stop by means of a brake), finger(touch with fingers e. to be N with respect to: father ( act as a father to), nurse ( act as a nurse to ) f. make or change…into N: cash ( change into cash), group( make into a group)
g.to send or go by N: mail ( send by mail ), bicycle( go by bicycle), boat ( travel in a boat) B. de-adjectival. This type has two kinds
a. transitive verbs, to make adj: calm ( make calm ), dirty ( make or become dirty)
b. intransitive verb, to become adj: dry ( become dry), empty ( become empty), narrow( become
narrow), grey ( become grey ), blue( become blue). But this kind can also be used as transitive verbs.
2. Conversion to noun. There are two types of conversion to noun. A.deverbal. which includes the following kinds. a. to denote the state of mind or sensation desire—strong longing, wich
dismay—strong feeling of fear and hopelessness doubt—uncertainty of mind love—kind feeling, fondness
smell—one of the five senses special to the nose want—need
b. to denote an event or activity attempt—effort to do something fall—act of falling hit—blow
laugh—sound made in laughing search—act of searching
swim—act or period of swimming c.as object of the given verb answer—questions and answers bet—lay you a bet catch—a good catch find—an important find
d. as subject of the given verb
cheat—a cheat is a person who cheats
coach—a coach is a person who trains athletes e.as instrument of the given verb cover—put the cover on…
wrap—shawls, coats, cloak, etc. f. as manner of the given verb walk—by his walk
throw—with a throw of 500 feet g. as place of the given verb
divide—a period marking the divide rise—a small rise ( a small slope) turn—take a turn to the right
clipped form. Common examples are ad ( advertisement), fan ( fanatic), prof ( professor), gym ( gymnasium), math( mathematics), phone (telephone),lab, flu, etc.
Back-formation: a very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation. Typically, a word of one type ( usually a noun ) is reduced to form another word of a different type (Usually a verb). It is assumed that a new word may enter the language because of an incorrect morphological analysis, such a word is called back formation. The verb hawk, stoke, swindle, and edit all came into the language as back formations of hawker, stoker, swindler and editor. Pea is derived from pease, by speakers who thought pease was a plural. This is called ― ignorance sometimes can be creative‖.
Conversion: a change in the function of a word. For instance, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion, functional shift. A number of nouns, such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation, etc, via the process of conversion, come to be used as verbs in the following sentences:
He is papering the bedroom wall. Have you buttered the toast? They are vacationing in France.
This process is particularly productive in modern English with new used occurring frequently. The
conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess, must, spy as the sources of a guess, a must, a spy. Or adjectives, such as dirty, empty, total, crazy, and nasty, can become the verbs to dirty, empty, total, or the nouns a crazy, a nasty. Other forms, such as up and down can also become verbs, as in the sentences: They up the prices or we down a few beers. More details can be found in Chapter 4
Acronyms首字母缩略词: Some new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These acronyms often consist of capital letters, as in NATO, UNESCO, but can lose their capitals to become everyday terms such as laser ( light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), rada ( radio detecting and ranging) and scuba ( self contained underwater breathing apparatus).
Chapter 4 Basic word formation 4.1 Introduction
Word formation or word-building is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. The expansion of the vocabulary is a common and natural phenomenon of any language, including the English language. The English language has increased its resources not only through the adoption of words from other
languages, but also through the formation of new words with the material available in the language. There are some main processes of English word formation: prefixation, suffixation, compounding, conversion.
4.1.1 Prefixation
What is prefixation? Prefixation is a main type of word formation putting a prefix in front of the stem, free morphemes, sometimes with but more usually without a change of word class. There are ten categories of prefixes in English according to the meaning. 1) negative prefixes:
a/an. The prefix a/an means lacking in or lack of. It combines with adjectives, or some nouns chiefly used in learned and scientific words. Amoral—not concerned with morals Asexual—without sex or sexual organs Asymmetry—lack of symmetry
Dis—the prefix dis- means not, or the converse of. It combines with adjectives, nouns and verbs. Dishonest—not loyal, disjoint—lacking common members, disloyal—not loyal.
Discontent—lack of contentment, disorder—lack of order, disaggregate—break up or apart
The prefix in-means not, or the converse of. It changes spelling depending on the letter that follows it. Thus, in may also be spelled il before l, im before m, p, and ir before r.
Incomplete—not complete, inconsistent—not in a harmony with, incorrect—not correct. Insane—not healthy in mind, mad.
Illiterate—unable to read and write, illogical—without logic.
Impolite—not polite, immortal—that will not die, continue forever. Irrational—without power to reason, unreasonable.
Irrelevant—not having any real connections with or relation to something else.
Non--, the prefix non- means not. It combines with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs Non-black—white students.
Nonscience—one that is not a science
Nonsmoker—a person who does not smoke Nonfree—without freedom Nonstop-not stop Nongreen—not green
Nonresistant—not resistant
Nonhero—antihero, a hero whose unconventional characteristics are opposite to those of a traditional hero.
The prefix non is a very productive prefix used in modern English. It is found that there are about six hundred words with the prefix non in Webster‘s New Collegiate Dictionary, 1977.
Un-, the prefix un-means not, or the converse of . it combines with adjectives, participles ( ed and ing) and nouns.
Unfriendly—not friendly, hostile
Unwise—lacking wisdom or good sense, foolish Unexpected—not expected. Unrest—lack of calmness Unease—uneasiness
The prefix un is also productive, we may also find over one thousand words with the prefix un in the
dictionary.
2) Reversative or privative prefixes:
De-, the prefix de- has two meanings. First, the prefix de, means reversing the action. It combines fairly freely with verbs and nouns.
Decentralize—to bring about the decentralization of, to move from one big place to another place. De-escalate – to decrease in area, rate, force. Defrost—to become unfrozen, to remove ice form Desegregate—to end segregation, racial segregation De-train—to get off the train
Second, de-, means depriving of . it combines fairly freely with verbs and nouns. Defraud—to deceive so as to get or keep something wrongly. Deforestation—the act of clearing off forests Denude—to remove the covering form
The prefix dis-, has two meanings. First, it means reversing the action. It combines with verbs freely. Disconnect—undo the connection
Disinfect—to clean so as to destroy bacteria Disown—refuse to own sth.
Second, it means lacking. It can combine with adjectives. Discolored—becoming changed in color.
The prefix un again has two meanings when combining with verbs First, it means reversing the action. Unpack—to remove Untie—to loose sth tied
Unwrap—to remove the wrapping from Unzip—to open by undoing a zip
Second, it means depriving of, releasing from. It combines limitedly with nouns, turning them into verbs.
Unhorse—dislodge from a horse
Unleash—to remove sth from a leash
Unman—to deprive of manly vigor, fortitude or spirit Unseat—to dislodge from one‘s seat.
3) pejorative prefixes
mal-, the prefix, means badly, bad. It combines with verbs, participles, adj, and nouns. Maltreat—to treat sb badly
Malformed—made or shaped badly. Malfunction—a fault in operation
Malnutrition—bad feeding with food that is the wrong sort or too small in amount.
mis, the prefix, means wrongly or astray. It combines with verbs, pp,and nouns. Miscalculate—to calculate wrongly Misdial—to dial a wrong number
Misunderstand—to understand wrongly. Misbehaved—behaving badly
Misleading—leading in a wrong direction.
Pseudo-, the prefix means false or imitaiton. It combines with nouns and adj. Pseudonym—an invented name used by a writer in place of the real name. Pseudoscience—pretended science
4) prefixed of degree or size.
Arch-, the prefix mans supreme, most. It combines with nouns. Archbishop—a person in charge of churches Archdove—a principal figure of the dove group. Archenemy—chief enemy
Co-, the prefix, means joint, jointly. It combines freely with nouns and verbs
Coeducation—the system of educating boys and girls together in the same building. Coexistence—the state of existing together. Coexist—to exist together.
The prefix co-, sometimes changes its spelling depending on the letters that follow it. Thus co-, may appear as com- before b or p, col before l, con- before c,f,g, cor before r. Colleague— a fellow worker
Compatriot— a person who was born in or who is a citizen of the same country as another. Concourse— an act of coming, gathering, moving.
Correspondence— agreement between particular things. Combat—to fight against or to fight with
Concur—to agree, to happen at the same time
Hyper-, the prefix, means extreme. It combines freely with adj, nouns, verbs, etc. Hyperactive—excessively active
Hypercritical—too ready to see faults or things which are wrong rather than noticing the good points. Hypersensitive—unusually sensitive too easily hurt in the feelings Hypercautious—excessively cautious Hypermilitant—excessively militant.
Hyperbole—the use of language which makes sth sound bigger, smaller
Mini-, the prefix, means little. It combines freely with nouns. Minibike—a small motorcycle. Minibus—a small vehicle Miniradio—a small radio set. Miniskirt—a very short dress. Minicar—a small car
Maxi,opposite to mini, means large or long. Maxicoat—a long coat Maxiskirt—a long skirt
Maxiseries—a long TV opera
Out-, the prefix, means surpassing. It combines freely with nouns and intransitive verbs to form transitive verbs.
Outrun—to run faster than Outlive—to live longer than
Outclass—to be much better than
Over-, the prefix, means excessive, from above and better. It combines with verbs and adj. Overeat—to eat too much
Overestimate—estimate too highly Overwork—work too hard
Overconfident—excessively confident Overflow—to flow over the edge of Overshadow—throw a shadow over
Overeducate—provide with more education
Over-exploitation—the exploiting of a natural resource beyond the level Overprotective—extremely protective
Sub-, the prefix, means below. It combines with adj, nouns.
Subconscious—not fully known by the mind in conscious workings Subnormal—below normal
Subcenter—a secondary center Subcountry—countryside
Subtext—the underlying meaning of a literary or dramatic text.
Subcontinent—a large mass of land made up of a number of different countries. Subculture—inferior to main culture. Subdivide—divide sth into smaller parts.
Subhuman—behaving in a completely unacceptable way.
Super-,the prefix, has two meanings. First, it means more than, very special. It combines freely with adjs and nouns.
Supernatural—not explained by natural laws. Supersecret—extremely secret
Supersized—of extremely large size Superman—a man of great ability Superport—a very large port
Supermarket—a large shop where one serves oneself
Superstar—an unusually famous and popular performance. Superhero—an ideal superior hero
Superplane—the most powerful plane for military use Supersell—an exceptional good sell Second, it means on top, superior.
Superfreeze—to freeze to a very low temperature
Superpose—to place or lay over or above whether in or not in contact Superpower—excessive or superior power
Sur-, the prefix, means over and above. It combines with nouns and some verbs. Surtax—an additional tax on high incomes Surpass—go beyond in amount or degree Surreal—fanciful Surmount—conquer.
Ultra-, the prefix, means extreme, beyond. It combines with adjs and nouns in technical usage,
sometimes with the prefix stressed.
Ultraconservative—extremely conservatives Ultramarine—situated beyond the sea
Ultramodern—having the very latest ideas, styles.
Ultra-violet—beyond the purple end of the range of colors that make up light seen by human being. Ultra-secret—highly secret.
Ultra-short—very short in duration
Ultra-microscope—an apparatus for making visible scattered light particles too small be perceived by the ordinary.
Ultrahigh—of the highest degree, extremely high Ultraleft—extremely radical
Under-, the prefix, means too little. It combines with verbs, nouns, and ed-participles Undercharge—to take or ask too less
Underestimate—have too low an opinion of the degree or number of Underdeveloped—to become less developed
Undereducated—not normally or adequately educated
Under-occupied—have fewer occupants than there is room for, Underproduce—to produce less than the usual amount. Undertax—to tax insufficiently or inadequately. Underkill—an inability to defeat an enemy.
5) prefixes of orientation and attitude
anti-, the prefix, means against. It combines with adjs and nouns mainly. Antibacterial—directed or effective against bacteria
Anticlockwise—in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock Antisocial—opposed to laws or to organized societies.
Contra-, the prefix, means opposite. It combines with nouns, verbs and adjs. Contradiction—the act of contradicting. Contrafact—opposite to the fact
Counter-, the prefix, means against, in opposition to. It combines with verbs, nouns and adjs. Counteract—to lesson, reduce or oppose the effect Counterattack—to make a counterattack
Counterclaim—an opposing claim, especially in law. Countercurrent—flowing in an opposite direction
Pro, the prefix, has two meanings. Firstly, it means for, on the side of.
Pro-European—supporting or advocating the social cultural or economic unification of western European countries
Pro-common market—supporting European economic community Pro-student—favoring or siding with students
Secondly, it means on behalf of. It combines with nouns freely. Pro-consul—deputy consul.
6) locative prefix
Locative prefixes, like spatial prepositions, may extend their meaning metaphorically to abstract
spheres.
Fore-, the prefix, means front part of, front. It combines freely with nouns. Forearm—the lower part of the arm\\
Forehead—the part of the face above the eyes and below the hair
Foreground—the nearest part of a scene in a view, a picture and a photo Foreleg—either of the 2 front legs of a 4-legged animal Foreword—a short introduction at the beginning of a book.
Inter, the prefix, means between, among. It combines with adjs, verbs and nouns. Intercontinental—extending among continents or carried on between continents. International—having to do with more than one country Intertwine—to twine about one another Interview—to ask questions of Interplay—working together
Interaction—have an effect on each other
Trans, the prefix, means across, from one place to another. It combines freely with verbs and adjs. Transcontinental—go across a continent
Transpacific—crossing or extending across the pacific ocean Transform转换—to change completely in form
Transplant—to move from one place and plant in another Transnational—across the nations.
7) prefixes of time and order
ex-, the prefix, means former. It combines with human nouns ex-husband—former husband ex-president—former president ex-wife—former president
fore, the prefix here, means before.
Foresee—to form an idea or judgment about what will happen in the future Foretell—to tell what will happen in future Forewarn—to warn in advance
Foresight—the ability to see future needs.
Post-, the prefix, means after.
Post-election—relating to a period after election Post liberation—after liberation Post war—after war
Post-doctoral ( post doctorate)—being beyond the doctoral level.
Pre, the prefix, means before.
Pre-school—the period in child‘ s life from the infancy to the age of six that ordinarily precedes attendance at elementary school Pre-knowledge—knowing in advance
Prehistory—a time before history was written Premature—not mature
Preconference—prior to the conference
Pre cook—cook partially before final cooking Pre task—the first part of the whole tasks
Re, prefix, means again, back. Redesign—to design again Redial—make a call again
8) Number prefixes
This part belongs to the neo-classical items. They are originally Greek or Latin widely used numerical prefixes.
Bi, di, the prefix means two. Bicycle—a 2 wheeled vehicle
Bilingual—containing or expressing in two languages Biweekly—appearing every two weeks Bilateral—of, with two sides
Dioxide—a chemical compound containing 2 atoms of oxygen to every one another substance Dichotomy—a division or the process of dividing into two especially mutually exclusive groups
Multi, poly- the prefix, means many. Multi-lateral—having many sides
Multinational—involving more than two countries Multi-forms—having several different shapes
Multimedia—having many media worked together, one of computer systems
Polygamy—the custom or practice of having more than one wife at the same time Polysemy—the existence of many meanings
Polygon—a figure or a flat surface having 5 or more straight sides
Semi-, hemi- the prefix, means half Semicircle—half a circle
Semi-illiterate—a person who is barely able to read or write Semivowel—a sound like a vowel sound, like j in English Hemisphere—half a sphere Hemicycle—half a circle
Hemidemisemiquaver—sixty fourth note.
Hemiplegia—paralysis of one lateral half of the body
Tri-, the prefix, means three.
Triangle—a flat figure with 3 straight sides and 3 angles Tricycle—a bicycle with 3 wheels Trilateral—having three sides
Trilingual—consisting of three languages
Uni-, mon-, the prefixes, mean one.
Unification—the act, process or result of unifying Uniform—a dress of a distinctive design or fashion
Unisex—the state or condition of not being distinguishable as to sex Unique—being the only one
Monogamy—the custom or practice having one wife or husband at one time
Monologue—a spoken part of a play, film, for a single performer, especially acting alone Monorail—a railway with a single rail
9) Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes
Auto, the prefix, means self. It combines with nouns and adjs Autobiography—a book written by oneself about one Autocrat—a ruler with unlimited power
Automation—the act that needs little or non-human control
Extra-, the prefix, means exceptionally. It combines freely with adjs, occasionally with nouns, sometimes written as a separate word
Extralinguistic—outside the province of language or linguistics Extralunar—found existing outside the moon Extraordinate—remarkable
Extravagant—spending too much money
Neo-, the prefix, means new, revived. It combines with nouns and adjs Neo-classism—new classism
Neo-impressionism—a late 19th century French art theory and practice charaterized by an attempt to make impressionism more precise in form
Neo-colonialism—the economic and political policies by which a Great power indirectly maintains or extends its influence over other areas or people.
Neo-Nazi—of or pertaining to a political party which follows the Nazi principles.
Pan, the prefix, means all, world wide. It combines especially with nouns and premodifying denominal adjs
Pan-Americanism—a movement for greater cooperation among the pan-American nations especially in defence, commerce and cultural relations.
Pan-Asianism—a movement or policy seeking the political union of all Asian countries
Proto-, the prefix, means first, original. It combines with nouns and adjs.
Protohuman—relating to or resembling an early primitive human or manlike primate. Protomartyr—the first martyr in a cause or region
Protolanguage—an assumed or recorded ancestral language
Tele, the prefix, means distant. It combines chiefly with classical bases to form nouns. Telegram—a message sent by telegraph
Telescope—a tubelike scientific instrument used for seeing distant objects by making them appear nearer and nearer.
Telecommunication—communication at a distance.
Vice-, the prefix, means deputy. It combines freely with nouns Vice-chairman—an officer next in rank to a chairman Vic-president—an officer next in rank to a president 10) Conversion prefixes.
The function of conversion prefixes is to produce a conversion of the base from one word class to another.
a-, the prefix, chiefly combines with verbs to form predicative adjs.
Asleep—sleeping
Astride—with a leg on each side Atremble—shaking involuntarily
Be-, the prefix, has three cases used in English. First, it combines with –ed to turn noun bases into adjs with intensified force. It means wearing or surrounded by. Befogged—surrounded by fog
Bespectacled—wearing spectacles Bewigged—wearing a wig
Second, it intensifies the force of verbs
Bedazzle—to confuse by a strong light, to impress forcefully Bestir—to stir up
Third, it combines with nouns to be transitive verbs Bedevil—to trouble greatly
Befriend—to act as a friend to sb
Bewitch—to have a magic effect, often harmful, charm as if by magic
En-, em- ( before p or b). the prefix en- or em chiefly combines with nouns to form verbs. The prefix en- means to put into, or to provide with.
Empower—to give someone the power or lawful right
Endanger危害—to cause danger to
Enlarge—make sth larger
4.1.2 suffixation
What is suffixation? Suffixation is a main type of word formation, putting a suffix after the stem,
sometimes without, but more usually with a change of word class. It is known that the primary function of prefixes is to effect a semantic modification of the base while the chief function of suffixes is to change the word class of the base, although suffixes have only a small semantic role. Therefore the suffixes may be classified into four categories according to the word class.
1) Noun suffixes: it may be subdivided into the following five types
(1) denominal nouns名词派生: abstract. The following nouns suffixes combine with noun bases which become largely noncount, abstract or collective nouns of status and activities. -age, the suffix, means measure of or collection of
Baggage—all the bags and other containers with which a person travels Luggage—the cases, bags, boxes, etc, of a traveler.
Percentage—an amount stated as if it is part of a whole which is 100 -dom, the suffix, means the state of being. Kingdom—a country governed by a king Wisdom—the state of being wise Officialdom—officials as a class
-ery, -ry, the suffix, means condition associated with, location of, etc. Drudgery—hard, dull, humble work Slavery—the system of having slaves
Nursery—a place where small children are taken care of Refinery—a building for refining metals, oil or sugar. Machinery—machines in general
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